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The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, a globally invasive pest, demonstrates distinct immune adaptations across developmental stages and sexes, which are critical for its survival and adaptability. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing, this study systematically profiled 56 immune-related gene families, identifying 157 genes involved in Toll and Imd signaling pathways, and 185 genes associated with cellular immunity. Dynamic expression patterns were observed, with humoral immunity indices peaking during the third (L3) and fifth (L5) instars and diminishing in the pupal (P) and egg stages. In contrast, cellular immunity indices were highest in pupae and adult females, while the sixth instar (L6) and adult males exhibited the lowest immune capacity. Female adults displayed superior immune potential compared to males, reflecting evolutionary pressures tied to reproductive fitness. Notably, larval stages exhibited heightened immune gene expression, which aligns with their vulnerability to pathogens. Validation via qRT-PCR confirmed these transcriptomic trends, highlighting the modulation of immunity throughout development. These findings offer novel insights into the interplay between developmental progression and immune regulation in S. frugiperda. By elucidating these stage-specific immune responses, this study provides a robust framework for developing targeted pest management strategies aimed at mitigating the impact of this destructive pest. 

Abstract Agricultural ecosystem formation and evolution depend on interactions and communication between multiple organisms. Within this context, communication occurs between microbes, plants, and insects, often involving the release and perception of a wide range of chemical cues. Unraveling how this information is coded and interpreted is critical to expanding our understanding of how agricultural ecosystems function in terms of competition and cooperation. Investigations examining dual interactions (e.g. plant–microbe, insect–microbe, and insect–plant) have resolved some basic components of this communication. However, there is a need for systematically examining multitrophic interactions that occur simultaneously between microorganisms, insects, and plants. A more thorough understanding of these multitrophic interactions has been made possible by recent advancements in the study of such ecological interactions, which are based on a variety of contemporary technologies such as artificial intelligence sensors, multi‐omics, metabarcoding, and others. Frequently, these developments have led to the discovery of startling examples of each member manipulating the other. Here, we review recent advances in the understanding of bottom‐up chemical communication between microorganisms, plants, and insects, and their consequences. We discuss the components of these “chemo‐languages” and how they modify outcomes of multi‐species interactions across trophic levels. Further, we suggest prospects for translating the current basic understanding of multitrophic interactions into strategies that could be applied in agricultural ecosystems to increase food safety and security.